JAINISM IN
ANCIENT KASHMIR
Some
art historians and scholars are of the view that the emaciated, crouching and
almost naked ascetics appearing in the terracotta tiles recovered from Harwan
and various other archaeological sites like Kutabal, Semthan, Ushkur and
Hutmurrah in J&K have no link with Buddhism or Shaivism as is generally
believed. Scholars like Robert E Fisher are of the view that the tiles are part
of an Ajivika religious site, later reused in a nearby Buddhist monastery. A
few curators from the US museums describe these terracotta tiles as “A Tile
with Ajivaka" in their museum catalogue. A group of scholars are of the
view that the naked ascetics depicted in the tiles could be Jain mendicants
performing “Santhara”, a sombre rite
through which one fasts to death.
(The author inside the MET Museum, New York near the Harwan tiles on display)
Ajivika was a sect in ancient India. It is
said that Ajivikas wore no clothes, and lived as ascetic monks in organised
groups. They practised severe austerities.
Ajivikas were known to eat very little food that was needed for basic
survival. Being influential, Ajivikas had many powerful followers, especially
during the Mauryan rule. Some scholars
believe that Ajivika, Jainism and Buddhism originated from the same source -
the Shramana School. According to
Buddhist sources, Makkhali Goshala, the founder of the Ajivaka sect was a
contemporary of Gautam Buddha and Mahavir Swami. Some sources say that he was a
disciple of Mahavir Swami and he was a rival sect to Buddhism and Jainism.
Ajivikas formed a third unorthodox sect besides the sect of Gautama Buddha, the
founder of Buddhism and that of Mahavira Vardhamana, the twenty-fourth
Tirthankara of the Jainas. The three heterodox sects react against the
ritualistic creed of the Vedists. So Jainism, Buddhism and Ajivakas lived in
Kashmir and facts are now evident from surviving archaeological evidence.
(A Harwan terracotta tile inside MET Museum, New York ...Photo by author)
The noted American scholar and art historian,
Pratapaditya Pal writes this:-
“Of the
three religions that originated in India–Hinduism, Jainism, and
Buddhism–Jainism is the only faith that does not seem to have travelled abroad
until modern times. Certainly, there is no evidence of any sea-borne migration
of Jainism to Sri Lanka or Southeast Asia, where both Hinduism and Buddhism
were entrenched religions from early times. However, both material—in the forms
of metal images—and literary evidence are presented to demonstrate that the
Jains did travel north by land as far as Kashmir and Afghanistan in pre-modern
times.”
Prof Muhammad Hameed from Lahore University
writes this:-
“Jaina
historical sources are quite rich in presenting evidence of flourishing Jaina
communities and their secular or religious built heritage in Punjab and Sindh
before the arrival of Muslims. These Jaina accounts confirm Jaina presence in
Sindhusagara, Bhera, Taxila, parts of Chakwal and other areas of Punjab as
early as in the life of Mahavira and generations of his early followers. These
historical notices are supported by Chinese travel accounts and some
archaeological evidence produced through excavation or exploration work
conducted by Sir Aurel Stein, Sir John Marshall and many more. According to
Prabhavakacarita, a Jain historical work dated 1277–78, the Svetambara scholar
Hemacandra had requested grammatical texts preserved in Sharda temple( now in POK) so he could compile his grammar, the
Siddhahema. Kalhana records Jaina presence in Kashmir. He presents Ashoka as a
great-grandson of Shakuni who declared Jainism as the state religion of
Kashmir. He erected Jaina temples all over his kingdom. Lalityadityia also
played an essential part in the spread of Jainism. “
Jainism is as old as the Vedic religion. The
Jain tradition has a succession of great teachers or Tirthankaras. There were
24 Tirthankaras the last of which was Vardhaman Mahavira. The first Tirthankara
is believed to be Rishabhanath or Rishabhadev. The names of two Jain
Thirthankaras, Rishabhadev and Arishtanemi, are found in Rigveda. The Vishnu
Purana and the Bhagavat Purana describe Rishabhadev as an Avatara of Narayana.
The foundation of Jain philosophy is total non-violence towards any living
being howsoever small it might be. Even honey is forbidden, as its collection
would amount to violence against the bees.
The 23rd Tirthankara was Parshvanatha who was
born in Varanasi in the 8th or 7th century BC. All the Tirthankaras were
Kshatriyas by birth. Jainism is a polytheistic religion and its goals are based
on non-violence and liberation of the soul. Jainism is a religion of self-help.
There are no gods or spiritual beings that will help human beings. The three
guiding principles of Jainism, the ‘three jewels’, are right belief, right
knowledge and right conduct. The supreme principle of Jain living is
non-violence (ahimsa). Jains are divided into two major sects; the Digambara
(meaning sky-clad) sect and the Svetambara (meaning white-clad) sect. Each of
these sects is also divided into subgroups. Jain faith puts a lot of emphasis
on respect and worship to the religious teachers, from the ordinary mendicant
up to the Jinas (religious teachers).
Jainism made a valuable contribution to Indian
Culture in the sphere of religion, society, literature, philosophy, education,
art and architecture. In society, Jainism spread the message of social
equality. In the early stages, the Jains adopted the Prakrit language of the
common people to preach their doctrines. The adaption of Prakrit by the Jains
as their medium of expression and language for the compilation of their
canonical literature gave an incredible stimulation for the growth of Prakrit.
The Jains also contributed substantially to the development of the art of
painting. The Jain paintings are found at Ellora and Sittannavasal. Jainism
enriched Indian architecture. Hathigumpha of Orissa, Mt-Abu in Rajasthan, and
Girnar in Saurashtra have good specimens of cave architecture. The rock-cut
caves at Badami and Aihole have the figures of Jain Thirthankaras which belong
to the early Chalukya period. Jain temples at Jodhpur, Chittore, Khajuraho and
Dilwara in particular are valuable contributions to architectural heritage of
India. The gigantic statue of Bahubali (Gomateswara) at Sravanabelagola in
Karnataka is a marvel.
Jainism in Kashmir has a long ancient history.
According to Jaina sources, Jainism took root in the areas now under Pakistan’s
occupation at a very early date. What fate Ashoka’s conversion from Jainism to
Buddhism and its resulting success brought to the Jaina minority in areas now
in Pakistan is unknown? There are no details available of Jaina existence in
these areas during post-Kushan Hindu revival in Punjab, Gandhara and Kashmir.
Literary evidence from Valley of Kashmir however demonstrate the evidence of a
sizeable Jaina community in Kashmir and Gandhara. A handful of literary
references in Jaina, Buddhist and historical texts and some archaeological
evidence, though scarce, confirm an early presence of Jainism in a belt
consisted of areas of Rajasthan, Sindh, and undivided Punjab and Kashmir.
The oldest extant reference of Jaina political
sway in Northern India especially what is now known as Pakistan came from an
inscription in the Khandgiri cave in Orissa. According to this source, King
Kharwel conquered the Uttrapatha region between Mathura and Kandhar in the
second century BCE. Mahavira is also believed to have visited Shwaitambika or
Sialkot. Heun Tsang found a Jaina community living in the vicinity of Simhapura
or modern-day Dulmial. Jain stupas found in Taxila by Sir John Marshall were
exciting discoveries. Aurel Stein in his report described the ruins of the
Jaina Stupa site near Jhelum province now in Pakistan.
A serious researcher may find some reference
to Jainsim in ancient Kashmir in Kalhana’s Rajatarangini as well. The Nilamata
Purana makes mention of worshippers of Visnu, Siva, Sakti, Surya, Ganpati,
Buddha and Jina in ancient Kashmir. These people were also known as Vaisnavas,
Saivas, Saktas, Sauras, Ganpatyas, Bauddhas and Jainas respectively.The
9th-century Sanskrit Play Agamadambara by Bhatta Jayanta of Kashmir makes
mention of Digambara and Shvetambara Jain monks in Kashmir. The Sanskrit play Āgamaḍambara satirizes various
religions in Kashmir and their place in the politics of King Shankaravarman
(883–902). The leading character, Sankarshana, is a young and dynamic orthodox
graduate of Vedic studies, whose career starts as a glorious campaign against
the heretic Buddhists, Jains and other heterodox sects in Kashmir. Jayanta also
wrote Nyayamanjari and Nyayakalika.
In between Nyayamanjari and Nyayakalika, he also wrote Nyayapallava. References
to Nyayapallava are seen in Syadvadaratnakara, an important text of Jaina logician
Vadideva. The Well-known Kashmiri Sanskrit poet Bilhana opens his play Karanasundari with a Mangalacharna
(opening prayer) in the form of a Stuti for Jinesvara (page 58 Ratan Parimoo: ‘Gujrati
Schoo And Jaina Manuscript Painting’). Panchastavi,
the ancient Sanskrit scripture has been recited in every Kashmiri Pandit home
for many centuries. Written in Kashmir, the book has been in Kashmir since
ancient times. It has also been translated into Kashmiri and Shloka 33 of Sakaljanani Satva makes clear mention
of Jainendra or Mahavir Swami being worshipped in Kashmir with other Hindu
gods. Even the word Jainava along with Shiva and Keshava has been mentioned by
Lal Ded in one Vaak. Lal Ded say,"
Shiva, Keshava ha Jainava ".
Published in 1877, Edward Thomas in his book,’
Jainism or the Early Faith of Ashoka ‘writes this:-
“Ashoka
himself first introduced Jainism into the kingdom of Kashmir when Buddhism was
dominant there during the reign of Jaluka. It is fully consistent with what
Asoka has still to disclose in the texts of his own inscriptions. Asoka’s
conversion to Buddhism occurred late in his life or reign. But the annals of
Kashmir, on the other hand, more emphatically imply that either he did not seek
to spread or had not the chance or opportunity of propagating his new faith in
the outlying sections of his dominions; and that, in this valley of Kashmir, at
least. Buddhism came after him, as a consequence of his southern surrender
rather than as a deliberate promulgation of a well-matured belief on his part.
The leading fact of Asoka^s introduction or recognition of the Jaina creed in
Kashmir, above stated is freely acknowledged in the pages of the Rajatarangini
— a work which, though finally compiled and put together only in 1148 a.d.”
The author was told this by a Jaina scholar:-
(a) Shrimal
Purana also makes mention of Mahavir Swami’s visit to Kashmir.
(b) The
Garuda is a Yaksha or guardian for Shantinatha in Jain iconography and
mythology. Garuda inscriptions and iconography seen in some surviving
sculptures in Kashmir have Jain origin.
(c) According
to Ain-i-Akbari, Emperor Ashok was responsible for introducing Jainism into
Kashmir and this is confirmed by the Rajatarangini, the famous work depicting
the history of Kashmir.
(d) When
Adi Sankara visited Sharda Peeth (now in POK), he met many Jain and Buddhist
monks living inside the Peeth. He held long discussions with them.
Before 1990, more than 44 Jain families were
living in Kashmir. Presently only 4 families live in the valley and all of them
are in Srinagar city. These families are engaged in trade. Like, most of the
Buddhist archaeological evidence, the Jaina archaeological evidence has also
been totally erased from the landscape of the Kashmir valley. However, enough
material for serious research exists in texts.
There is hardly any research in this area which if done, may throw up
many surprises. This area needs to be explored.
(Avtar Mota)
Source:
(1) Jain, Jagdish Chandra. (1947). Life in
Ancient India as Depicted in the Jain Canons, with Commentaries: An
Administrative, Economic, Social, and Geographical Survey of Ancient India
Based on the Jain Canons.
(2) Jain, Kailash Chand. (1991). Lord Mahāvīra
and His Times.
(3) Bulletin of the Asia Institute…New
Series, Vol. 21 (2007).Evidence of Jainism in Afghanistan and ancient Kashmir
by Pratapaditya Pal.
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