MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS
OF ANCIENT KASHMIR
Everything that
is capable of hitting us ,surely brings pain. There is one strong exception; I
call it music. When it hits us, there is no pain and on the contrary, it is
possible that it may relieve some existing pain that has been troubling us .
And Berthold Auerbach has rightly said :-
"Music washes away from the soul
the dust of everyday life."
( A man shown playing on flute on a
stone carving of eighth century Martand Sun Temple in Kashmir )
Music has been a part of Kashmir’s
social life since ancient times.The earliest proof of popularity of music and
dancing in Kashmir is provided by archaeology. One can find it in terracotta
tiles recovered from Harwan.A tile from Harwan shows three musicians while
another shows a dancing girl.The tile showing three musicians also shows a
flute , cymbals and a pair of drums . These tiles were on display SP S Museum , Srinagar prior to 1990. A
musician playing flute is visible on a carved stone of Martanda Sun Temple. During every festivity, whether
religious or semi religious or seasonal ( sowing , harvesting spring ,and new
snowfall ) , the main item of celebration has been music ; Vocal and
instrumental .The Nilamata Purana makes mention of professional singers and
dancers active in ancient Kashmir . The Nilamata Purana also makes
mention of Vadya ,Vaditra and
Vadya Bhanda as the category of key musical instruments .If one
reads Vishnudharmottara Purana,a text popular in ancient Kashmir,one finds
mention of Ghana ( cymbal ) ,Vitata (
percussion ) ,Tata ( stringed instruments ) and Susira ( wind instruments ) .
So , musical instruments of ancient Kashmir are altogether different from
what we see presently . The Harmonium ,
Tabla , Sitar , Banjo , Sarangi , Rabab and some more musical
instruments in use currently have nothing to do with ancient musical
tradition of Kashmir . Even Tumbaknaar is not
the ancient Kashmiri musical instrument. The Santoor may have been the
ancient musical instrument of Kashmir as we find mention of Shat
Tantri Veena ( hundred stringed percussion instrument ) in ancient scriptures
like Taittiriya Samhita although the Nilamata Purana is silent
about it .
Another important connection with
music is dancing and thearterical performance,
both widely prevalent in ancient
Kashmir. The Widespread prevalence of music and dancing in Kashmir can also be
seen through the literaray evidenc. As in India, ancient Kashmir also had the tradition
of dancing girls attached to the temples
. Rajatarangini informs us that King Jaluka dedicated 100 ladies of his seraglio
to the Temle of Jyeshtharudra. King Kalasha and his son Harsha have been
describedby Kalhana as promoters of dancing and music in Kashmir . Ksemendra
and Bilhana have also mentioned dancing and music being widely prevalent in Kashmir .Even Rishi
Vasugupta of Kashmir compares Atma with a dancer , Antaratma with the theatre
and the Indriyas with spectators.
According to
Rajatarangini, a particular type of folk music remained quite
popular in Kashmir in which,utensils of clay or brass were used. Many scholars
believe it to be something like present day
Chhakri singing. Rajatarangini
also mentions an instrument called "Hadukka" which can be compared to
a big pipe or Swarnai of Bhaands of Kashmir .Matka also finds indirect
reference in Rajatarangini. Kalhana frequently refers to this instrument ,”they
played on their balded heads exactly as the earthen pot instruments were
played” .
The Nilamata Purana associates music
with Gandharvas, the celestial musicians who sang in the court of Gods . Natyashastra, another popular text in ancient Kashmir,explains
the Gandharva music as that which is governed by the combination of Svara
(tonal structure); Taala (time-units); and, Pada
(text), in association with various musical instruments (Gaandharvam
trividham vidhaat svara-tala-pada-atmakam). Thus, song, Veena,
flute and drums all contributed to Gandharva.
And Abhinavagupta In his
commentary on Bharat Muni’s Natya Shastra says this :-
“
The Gita (song), Vadya (instruments) and Natya (enactment
of play) should, ideally, coordinate and perform harmoniously – supporting and
strengthening each other with great relish. And, the three Kutapa-s, in
combination should suggest a seamless movement like a circle of fire (Alaata
chakra); and should brighten (Ujjvalayati) the stage.”
It
is pertinent to mention that Natya Shastra ( composed by Bharat Muni
sometime between in 200 B.C. and 200 A. D. ) clubbed musical
instruments into four groups ; Avanaddha Vadya (percussion instruments ),Ghana
Vadya ( solid instruments ),Sushir Vadya ( wind instruments ) and Tat Vadya (
stringed instruments ). This classification was adopted by 12th century
Europe for classification of musical instruments . Later Greek labels were
assigned to this classification- Chordophones for Tat Vadya , membranophones
for Avanaddha Vadya , aerophones for Sushir Vadya , and autophones for
Ghana Vadya . Thus the western system of classification is based on ancient
Indian Natya Shastra . Let us examine some ancient
musical instruments of Kashmir as appearing in the Nilamata Purana ,Rajataringani, Vishnudharmotra Purana and Acharya
Abhinavgupta’s commentary on Bharat Muni’s Natya Shastra.
VENU OR BANSURI ( Sushir
Vadya or wind instrument )
The Nilmata Purana makes clear mention of Venu players in ancient Kashmir. Natya Shastra recommended that
the Svaras (notes) on a flute should be perfected with the aid of the Veena and
the human voice. The singer should sing the very notes in accompaniment of a
flute. Natya Shastra adds that the
perfect harmony of the human voice, strains of the Veena and the melody of the
flute is indeed truly sublime, and fit for gods.
Venu is typical Indian
flute played in northern as well as southern parts of the country.It is a
musical instrument that produces sound when a stream of air is directed against
the edge of a hole, causing the air within the body of the instrument to
vibrate.The Venu has a remarkable way of converting the life force (pran, or
literally "breath") into a musical resonance (sur). It can have six
to eight holes .It has been accepted as a part of Hindustani classical music
all over the country. Bansuri or Venu has a great cultural and religious
significance.In India, It is also associated with Sri Krishna who also known as
Venugopal, Bansilal, Murlimanohar, Murlidhar and Bansidhar .The Venu has contributed immensely to the growth and vitality of
Indian Music , in all its forms.The flute (Venu) played a highly significant role in re-aligning the Svaras (notes) of Indian Music
Venu and
Veena are mentioned in Mahabharata also. The Carnatic musicians use a Venu that has 8
finger holes, while Bansuri consists of six or seven finger holes. Venu
changed its name in Kashmir and it was known as Nai . It became an important
instrument of Bhaand music after some variations .
VEENA ( Tat Vadya or stringed instrument )
As popular music instrument of
ancient Kashmir, Veena finds mention in the Nilmata Purana . Veena is not
directly mentioned in Rig Veda or Sama Veda. However *Aitreya
Aranyaka describes it in detail. Aitreya Aranyaka also describes its parts
as Sora's(head) , Udara( cavity) , Ambhana ( sounding board) ,Tantra( string)
and Vadana ( plectrum) .The Nilmata Purana also refers to it as Tantri
Vaadya. Veena was quite popular in ancient Kashmir and no music concert or
gathering could afford to avoid it or ignore it.
(
A veena )
The Natya Shastra of Bharata Muni makes clear mention of Veena.
Acharya Abhinavgupta's commentry on Natya Shastra also makes detailed mention
of Veena. Abhinavgupta in his commentary on Natya Shatra says this :-
“Every type of Giti
can be played on Veena. And, there are three types of Giti: Tatva,
Anugata and Ogha. When the Gana
(singing) is prominent and the Veena follows Gana
completely , it is Tatva; when the Veena follows Gana
in some part and then shows its own craftsmanship , it becomes Anugata;
and , when the playing techniques becomes A-nibaddha and the Karanas
become more prominent and the Gana becomes secondary then
the Giti becomes Ogha.”
In so far as Veena is
concerned , we need to understand that during ancient times, Veena must have been a generic term for
all stringed instruments including lutes, arched harps, with or without frets
and plucked with fingers or a plectrum. Some musicologists suggest
that the Veena referred to in the Natyashastra might have
resembled a harp rather than a lute (as we know it now). The major types of Veena-s during the time of
Bharata Muni were said to be: Chitra (seven strings and played
with fingers) and Vipanchi (nine stringed lutes played with a plectrum).
The other types were Ghosha or Ghoshavati (single stringed –
Ek Tari or a sort prototype Tanpura) and Kapucchi (also an
Ek Tari). From a careful study of Natya Shastra , one is
led to believe that the commonest type of Veena was bow shaped that resembles a
harp . There appears to be another one that was more like a guitar
.
( *Aranyaks are the literary
compositions that focus mainly on philosophical and mysterious subjects.
Aranyaks are the mastery combination of the events of Sanhitas and Brahmanas as
well as the philosophy of Upanishads.There are seven Aranyaks in all, namely
(i) Aitreya Aranyakas, (ii) Sankhayan Aranyak, (iii) Taittiriya Aranyak, (iv)
Maitriyani Aranyak, (v) Madhyandini Vrihadaranyak, (vi) Talvakar Aranyak and
(vii) Jaimini. )
SHANKHA OR CONCH SHELL ( Sushir
Vadya or wind instrument )
(Shankha)
We are familiar with word Shankh-Naad
or the sound of conch shell created during the war in Mahabharata. Shankh
or conch shell is widely used during prayers in Shiva temples all over
India. Shankha is used as music instrument
while singing Shiva Tandava Strotam. A conch shell is sacred to Hindus
and is blown during rituals and religious ceremonies. Lord Vishnu holds
a Shankh or conch shell in one hand .The Nilmata Purana makes mention of
the sound of Shankha being mingled with vocal and instrumental music
in ancient Kashmir. I quote:-
" The
night should be passerby men in the vicinity of fire ,amidst all sorts of vocal
and instrumental music mingled with the sound of conches."
The Natya
Shastra (2.35-37) says this :-
"
At the ceremony of laying the foundation for a play-house (Natya-mantapa)
the entire musical instruments such as, Śaṅkha, Dundubhi, Mṛdaṅga, and Paṇava
should be sounded."
Natyashastra ( 4.
253-254) mentions that seeing Śankara (Śhiva) dance with Recakas and Aṅgahāras, Pārvathī too performed a Lasya dance with delicate movements; and , this dance was
followed by the playing of musical instruments like Mṛdaṅga, Bherī, Paṭaha, Jhañjhā , Diṇḍima, Gomukha, Paṇava
and Dardura. Gomukha. Gomukha is a wind instrument, a kind
of conch resembling the mouth of the cow.
Conch shell is a major Hindu article
of prayer, used as a trumpet and in order to get rid of negative energy and
evil spirits. It is also used as a container for holy water ( Shankha Teertham
). The shankha (conch shell) mudra is also used during various tantric rituals
and meditation. "Shankha" is considered to be one of the most
auspicious objects that emerged from the sea during the Ksheera Sagara
Samudra Manthan.In Indian mythology, the Shankha is regarded sacred and
very auspicious. To initiate religious ceremonies, a Shankha (conch shell) is
blown. The Shankha is included in the list of the eight Buddhist auspicious
symbols, the Ashtamangala. In Tibetan Buddhism it is known as
"tung." .
PATAHA ( Avanaddha Vadya
or percussion instrument )
The Nilamata Purana makes mention of
Pataha .It is a sort of drum that was used as a musical instrument in
ancient Kashmir.Pataha finds mention in Ramayana and Mahabharata . It is
believed that the Pataha was played upon generally in accompaniment to the lute.
The Shiva Purana makes mention of Pataha as under :-
“ On the top of the mountain near the
city of Himālaya, Śiva sported about for a long time in the company of
Satī. The celestial damsels played on their lutes, tabours and drums (
PATAHA ) and danced with enthusiasm”.
Paṭaha ia also mentioned in
Natya Shastra . Lord Shiva is believed to have danced on the beats of Pataha .
Some musicologists call it as something like barrel drum. Some musicians have
also called it as Nandi Vadya as it is associated with Shiva . Some musicologists call it
a war drum.
Natya
Shatra says this :-
"
The drums , Mṛdaṅga Dardura and
Paṇava are the major components
(Anga) , while Jhallarī and Paṭaha etc., are the minor components. There is no instrument which cannot be used in the ten kinds
of play (daśarūpaka). And, each
kind of instrument may be used in a play after considering the context and the
emotions involved. The musical instruments can be played on
numerous varieties of occasions and scenes. In festivals, processions,
and auspicious (Maṅgala)
occasions and happy times as the weddings, birth of sons; during expeditionary
marches; and, in a battle where many fighters assemble; and, during such
other acts, all the musical instruments should be played"
Pataha (resembling
Dholak) is mentioned in Natya
Shastra ( 4.250 ) after Śhiva danced using Recakas and Aṅgahāras, and
Pārvatī performed a gentle Lasya
dance.
In the Sundarkanda of Ramayana,
Hanuman sees a woman with beautiful body features sleeping with a musical
instrument called Pataha and hugging it as if it was her lover.
MURAJA ( Avanaddha Vadya or percussion instrument )
Muraja is a musical instrument that come
very close to Mridanga of South India . It finds mention in the Nilamata
Purana and Natya Shastra . The Natya Shastra clubs it with percussion
instruments .
The Muraja seems
to have had a shape similar to that of the Dindima (Dindima sadṛśaṃ vādyaṃ
yasmin laghu tālāni saṃyuktāni santi) mentioned in Natya shastra .
Dindima has two faces; but, with the heads (beaten surfaces) much smaller
and giving out light sounds. Of its two faces, the left one was of eight
fingers; and, the right one of seven fingers in width. It was played with
hands, as did Nandi played on it with great delight (Sananda Nandi hastha hatha Murajah). Nandi is said to have been fond of playing on Muraja (Nandikesvarah krsnah Murajarudho Mrajavadanaparah).It is
said; the instruments like Veena, Muraja,
and conches together made pleasant music. According to Dr. C. Sivaramanmurti , "The drums sounding most pleasant to the
ear, such as Muraja, Mrudanga
and Pushkara are those
generally used as musical accompaniments. The sound of the Muraja is described as deep and
noble; that of the Mrudanga, softly
tapped with finger tips by women sounds sweet, resemble the gentle rumble of
clouds. The Darduras, Panavas
and Jarjharikas are other
varieties of soft-toned drums. The Muraja
and Mrudanga often required a
kind of rice-paste to be applied to both the leather surfaces to sweeten their
sound."
In Buddhism ,Murajā refers is the
“kettle-drum” and the deification thereof, as commonly depicted in Buddhist
iconography and mentioned .Murajā is described in the Niṣpannayogāvalī (vajraḍāka-maṇḍala) as under :-
“Murajā is of the colour of smoke, and
she is engaged with her two hands in playing on the Muraja instrument”.
In Pali Language , Muraja simply means a tambourine.
DARDARA ( Avanaddha Vadya
or percussion instrument )
The Natya
Shastra also makes mention of Dardara . The
Dardara was shaped like a bell of sixteen figure height (12 inches). Its face
resembled that of a pot (Ghata) of nine fingers in diameter ( say ,
about 6 inches) , with fat lips (rims) on all side. it is mentioned
that is was called Dardara because it makes sounds like ‘Darara’ : ‘ Darara
sabdam pati tasmat bhavati dardarah‘ . The Dardara was made of wooden
frame over which a hide was stretched tightly. In shape, it perhaps
resembled a huge gong or a big water pot (maha-ghatakatah). The Dardara
could perhaps be the forerunner of Ghatam. The ghaṭam is a percussion
instrument used in various repertoires across India. A variant played in Punjab
and known as gharha as is a part of Punjabi folk traditions. Its analogue in
Rajasthan is known as the madga and pani mataqa. The Matka or Noet, the
traditional instrument played in Kashmir appears to be a version of Dardara . However the Nilamata Purana is
silent about Dardara .
DAMARU ( Avanaddha Vadya or percussion instrument )
The Natya
Shastra also makes mention of Damaru .There is a
class of bi-facial avanaddha
vadya that are narrow in the middle like the hourglass,
sand-glass . These are the Damaru shaped drums. This form
has an ancient past and once was a major instrument in sophisticated music.
It is closely associated with Lord Shiva when he sports the vigorous Tandava dance. The beats of the
Damaru also symbolize the concept of time, in the Indian iconography . But, today,
one hears them only in tribal and folk music not on the concert platform.
Abhinavagupta
in his commentary on Natya Shastra explains that the term Tāṇḍava is
derived from the sounds like “Tando; tam-tam” produced by the accompanying
Damaru shaped drums.He also mentions that the bhaṇḍam (covered
percussion instruments) which produce sounds like “Bhan, Than” etc. are
important for the Nṛtta , or the limb-movements, the Āṅgika Abhinaya
.
CYMBALS (
Ghana Vadya or solid instrument )
This
cymbals finds mention in Natya Shastra . According to Natya Shastra , the
most fundamental of the Ghana (solid) Vadya is the human
body itself.
It
is very common to see clapping of hands (Taala) , counting fingers,
waving the hands, striking palms on the thighs or hips, stamping the feet on
the dance floor etc in a rhythmic ways to keep or measure time. Even the
singers of Sama–Gana kept rhythm by clapping and waving hands. Even today one
can see in Carnatic music concerts, persons (either on stage or in the audience)
clapping to keep time (Taala) while percussion instruments are
played.
The
Ghana vadya-s (idiophone Instruments) are instruments made of wood or metal
that produce sound when they are struck. Along with the solid Cymbals made of
metal, Natyashastra mentions Patah and Ghata (bell) as Ghana Vadya-s. The
instruments of this group are usually played with a striker or hammer. It
is said; cymbals (classified as Ghana Vadya) – made of metal- also
called as Taala are but an extension of the act of clapping to keep
time.
( cymbals )
The
Indian Chimta also falls in the category of Ghana Vadya .
DINDIMA (Avanaddha
Vadya or percussion instrument )
Didima
is another musical instrument that finds mention in Natya Shastra .Dindima
is folk instrument, made of hard wood; and, its length is measured as one and a
quarter of an arm. It has a face, on each end, is said to be three quarters of
an arm, in size. The faces are covered with animal skin. The right face is
played with a stick; and, the left with the hands. Dindima is hung from the
shoulder to the right side of the player. The sound produced is like Ding
–Ding; and hence the name. The Nāṭyaśāstra (4.250),
mentions Dindima in the context of the dances performed by Shiva and
Parvathi.
DUNDUBHI
( Avanaddha Vadya or percussion instrument )
The Dundubhi
finds mention in Natya Shastra ( 2035-37) . It can equated with
today’s Nagara is perhaps the most ancient of conical drums;
and finds mention in ancient texts. In the early times, it was used both in war
and peace. Natya Shastra mentions playing of Dundubhi during the
auspicious ceremony of laying the foundation of the playhouse (Nātya-maṇtapa
nivesanam),
The
Dundubhi is also like a Nagara kept in temples
and beaten during worship or to announce prayers. The Nagara consists two conical bowl drums struck with sticks. The smaller of the two is higher in
pitch; and, the larger has a deeper tone .
Describing
the glory and the beauty of Ayodhya, the Ramayana informs,, “the city
resounding with the rhythmic drum beats of Dundubhi, Mrudanga and Panava; with the melodious tunes of
string instruments like Veena , the city , indeed, was unique ; and undoubtedly
the best city on earth .
. 
( A smaller version of Dundubhi)
From 14th century
onwards , music and musical
instruments in Kashmir underwent total change due to fall of the Hindu Kingdom
and arrival of Islam. The ancient music that had survived subsequent to the
invasion of Dulacha(Mongol invader ) received another severe setback at the
hands of Sultan Sikander initially . The period of this Sultan was predominated
by an official attitude of hatred towards music and dance. However , music was patronised by Sultan Zain ul Abdin
and Sultan Ali Shah of Kashmir. They invited musicians from Central Asia .
Accordingly, Santoor, Rabab , Sehtaar, Sarangi,Tumbhaknaari,Wasul/Dokra etc.
arrived in Kashmir from Iran, Samarkand,
Tashkent and some other countries along
with Sufiana Music .
( Avtar Mota )
